There are about thirty
subspecies of the wolf (Canis lupus). Of those, about
twenty are Holarctic which means that they inhabit the Northern
Hemisphere above 30º north latitude. Wolves once populated all
over Europe from Portugal to the northern-most tip of Finland
and far into the Mediterranean. Their howls could be heard in
Eastern Europe, the Balkans, the Near East and Middle East,
and even south into Arabia. Wolves were once prevalent in Afghanistan,
northern India, into the depths of Russia, and even in its harshest
Siberian outposts. The Far East was also a hunting ground for
these great animals. China, the islands of Japan, and even as
far south as Australia once had their wolf populations. The
whole continent of North America down to the southern most tip
of Mexico was the hunting grounds of wolves. Other than Iceland,
North Africa, and the Gobi Desert wolves adapted and reigned
supreme in every environment and habitat. Today, with the exception
of Canada and Alaska, wolves have either been completely hunted
to extinction or are in severely endangered populations (1).
Wolves have been the
symbols of fear, awe, strength, ferocity, loyalty, nobility,
and even magic throughout many ages and cultures. Here, we will
explore some of the myths and legends of wolves and their development
within the context of Germanic culture. From the presence of
wolves in myth, to their warrior cults, and eventually into
the realms of werewolf legend they have held an almost semi-divine
existence within our psyche and culture.
First, we will take
a look at references to wolves in the Poetic Edda
(2) . One of the immediate considerations
we must put forth is the use of two different words for wolf.
One is the more literal “úlf” which pertained to literally the
animal, canis lupus. The other was “vargr” which usually
denoted either an outlaw, or a particularly vicious wolf of
a semi-magical or otherworldly nature.
The very first mention
of wolves is within the text of the Völuspá describing
a place of torment for the dishonorable called Náströnd;
39.
Sá hon þar vaða þunga
strauma
menn meinsvara ok morðvarga
ok þann er annars glepr
eyrarúnu.
Þar saug Niðhöggr nái
framgengna,
sleit vargr vera. Vituð
ér enn - eða hvat?
40.
Austr sat in aldna í
Járnviði
ok fæddi þar Fenrir kindir.
Verðr af þeim öllum einna
nokkurr
tungls tjúgari í trölls
hami.
41.
Fyllisk fjörvi feigra
manna,
rýðr ragna sjöt rauðum
dreyra.
Svört verða sólskin um
sumur eftir,
veðr öll válynd. Vituð
ér enn - eða hvat?
39.
She saw there oath breakers
and murderers,
wading the swift stream.
There were also those who deceived the female advisers of others.
Nithogg sucks dead bodies there, and the warg rips men apart.
Do you want to know more, or what?
40.
The old one sat in the
Iron-woods in the east
and raised the brood
of Fenrir.
The worst one of them
all,
shall take the sun in
the shape of a troll.
41.
He fills himself on the
flesh of dead men, reddens the seat of the gods with gore. The
sun turned swarthy in the following summers. The weather grew
entirely shifty.
Do you want to know more, or what?
In the text given, we
see that it is an unnamed vargr which rips men apart.
Also, we are given indication that it is one of the children
of Fenrir which swallows the sun, eats the flesh of dead men,
etc. The term, “í trölls hami” refers to taking a magical shape,
in that the word, “troll” did not mean a type of giant like
in century’s references. It merely denoted an outlandish, magical
nature. It was also considered to be “troll magic” to change
one’s shape. For example, to change oneself into a wolf would
have been considered “troll magic”.
Another thing to note
is that the brood of Fenrir, of which one of whom, which devours
the sun and eats the flesh of dead men. Many scholars and laymen
alike believe this to be Hati because of Snorri’s mention in
the Prose Edda. (But, more on Hati and Fenrir will come
later.) When we look later in the Poetic Edda, it says
different. But we will review this later.
Next, farther down the
text of the Völuspá we are told of the time before Ragnarök;
45.
Bræðr munu berjask ok
at bönum verðask,
munu systrungar sifjum
spilla;
hart er í heimi, hórdómr
mikill,
skeggöld, skálmöld, skildir
ro klofnir,
vindöld, vargöld, áðr
veröld steypisk,
mun engi matr öðrum þyrma.
45.
Brothers shall battle
one another and fight to the death. Sister’s sons bring ruin
on their sib.
There is hardness on
the world and great whoredom
An axe age, a sword age,
shields are cloven.
A wind age, a warg age,
before the world falls, no man will spare the other.
Here we see the infamous
line indicating what is usually translated to “Wolf Age”. But
here in the actual text itself we can see the word is “vargöld”
which indicates not a literal wolf age, but an age of outlaws
or magical creatures in wolf-shape from the útangarð that devastate
the worlds.
53.
Þá kemr Hlínar harmr
annarr fram,
er Óðinn ferr við úlf
veka,
en bani Belja bjartr
at Surti;
þá mun Friggjar falla
angan.
53.
Another sort of grief
comes to Hlin
when Odin fares to fight
the wolf
and the illustrious Bane
of Beli to battle with Surt. Frigg’s lover will then fall.
Here is the prophecy
of the fall of Óðinn as he is to be swallowed by Fenrir the
wolf. And here, again, we can see that the reference to Fenrir
is “úlf” which denotes that he is actually a large canis
lupus. But, we continue to an especially interesting section;
54.
Þá kemr inn mikli mögr
Sigföður,
Víðarr, vega at valdýri.
Lætr hann megi Hveðrungs
mundum standa
hjör til hjarta, þá er
hefnt föður.
55.
Ginn lopt yfir lindi
jarðar,
gapa ýgs kjaptar orms
í hæðom;
mun Óðins sonr ormi mæeta,
vargs at dauða Viðard
niðia.
54.
Then comes the mighty
son of Victory-father,
Vithar, to vie with the
deadly beast.
He struck the heart of
Hvethrung’s son
and so his father was
avenged.
55.
The fierce jaws of the
earth encircling worm
gaped from the hills
at the holy sky.
Then Odin´s son meets
the worm,
Vithar’s kinsman slays
the warg.
In this section, we
see that Víðarr strikes the heart of Hveðrungs son. Hveðrung
is believed to be an alternative name for Loki, being derived
from a similar kenning given for Hel (Hella) being “Hveðrung’s
maiden” (3). So thus, this is another
reason for attributing this beast to Fenrir.
But a further support
for the differences between the usage for “úlf” and “vargr”
are fully shown through stanza 55 given above. Although it is
clearly in reference to Þórr’s fight against Jörmungand the
Miðgarð wyrm; the word, “varg” is used to depict the beast usually
noted as being a great serpent or dragon (“orms/ormi”). In use
as a term for an outlaw or dweller of the útangarð, “varg” makes
sense in the last line. Again, the term for worm, in this translation
is, “orms/ormi”. This is made abundantly clear in the same stanza.
So, why use the term, “varg”? For a moment let us wonder if
this, like the “brood of Fenrir”, could this be describing one
who changes shape into a wyrm, like described in stanza 40 previously
above describing the “í trölls hami”?
The next textual reference
to wolves within Germanic mythology using the Poetic Edda
occurs in the poem called, Vafþrúðnismál. In this text,
Óðinn tests his knowledge of both the past and the prophecies
of the possible future against the jötan named, Vafþrúðnir;
Óðinn kvað:
46.
“Fjölð ek fór, fjölð
ek freistaðak,
fjölð ek reynda regin:
Hvaðan kemr sól á inn
slétta himin,
er þessa hefir Fenrir
farit?”
Vafþrúðnir kvað:
47.
“Eina dóttur berr alfröðull,
áðr hana Fenrir fari;
sú skal ríða, þá er regin
deyja,
móður brautir, mær.”
Odin
46.
“Far have I fared, much
have I dared,
oft have I tested the
Regin.
How comes the sun to
smooth heaven
once it is killed by
Fenrir?”
Vafthruthnir
47.
“Alfrothul will bear
one daughter
before she is killed
by Fenrir.
When the Regin die, that
maid will ride
the wilderness ways of
her mother.”
Here, we learn from
Óðinn (and confirmed by Vafþrúðnir) that it is indeed Fenrir
who swallows the sun. This is an interesting contrast to Snorri’s
account of it being Hati and Sköll who swallow the sun and moon
respectively. It seems that Hati and Sköll chase the sun and
moon, but it will be Fenrir that literally swallows the sun.
We will see this theory realized in a later stanza.
But, for now, further
concerning Óðinn;
Óðinn kvað:
52.
“Fjölð ek fór fjölð ek
freistaðak,
fjölð ek reynða regin;
Hvat verðr Óðni at aldrlagi,
þá er rjúfask regin?”
Vafþrúðnir kvað:
53.
“Úlfr gleypa mun Aldaföðr,
þess mun Víðarr vreka;
kalda kjafta hann klyfja
mun
vitnis vígi at.”
Odin
52.
“Far have I fared, much
have I dared,
oft have I tried the
Regin.
Who shall bring death
to Odin
when the Regin are ruined?”
Vafthruthnir
53.
“Then the wolves will
gulp down Allfather,
but Vithar will venge
him.
He shall cleave the cold
jaws
of the wolf in combat.”
Something very fascinating
about these two stanzas when one sees them in their original
Old Norse is the fact that they do not mention Fenrir specifically.
Other translators, like Hollander and Terry for example, always
translate these two stanzas with their own addition of Fenrir’s
name either in the first line, or the last line. Something else
is the pluralizing of “úlfr” within the context of, “Úlfr gleypa
mun Aldaföðr,” in line one of stanza 53. Could this be the use
of poetic kennings to denote something to the effect of “the
wolves of combat/battle/war”? Could this note, in poetic form,
that Óðinn succumbs to the masses of ferocious warriors attacking?
And the Viðarr takes revenge by destroying their chief combatant?
Perhaps cutting down a major leader of some of the opposing
forces, that being Fenrir? Even if it is Chisholm who is incorrect
with pluralizing wolf in his translation to English, we still
have this possibility of a kenning in the works. We also see
a new version for the word for “wolf” to be “vitnis”. But this
seems to be in combination with “vígi” which means to “fight,
battle, in combat with”.
The next mention of
wolves or a wolf in the Poetic Edda is in Grímnismál where Valhöll
is described;
10.
Mjög er auðkennt, þeir
er til Óðins koma
salkynni at séa:
vargr hangir fyr vestan
dyrr
ok drúpir örn yfir.
10.
It is well known to those
who come to Odin to see
his hall
that a warg hangs before
the west door
and an eagle hovers above.
Given the use of the
word, “vargr” again we can see this in three possible ways.
One is that it is the corpse of an outlaw which hangs before
the west door. Two, is that the vargr is a shape changer who
hangs before the west door. And finally, three, is the possibility
that it is the skin of a shape-changer or a skin to change shape
that hangs on the west door.
Further there is one
last stanza which speaks about wolves. Stanza 19;
19.
Gera ok Freka seðr gunntamiðr
hróðigr Herjaföður;
en við vín eitt vopngöfugr
Óðinn æ lifir.
19.
Wise and battle-accustomed,
famous warfather feeds that to Geri and Freki,
but Odin the weapon-father
always lives on wine
alone.
This merely speaks of
how Óðinn feeds his wolves of which both names mean “ravenous-one”
or “greedy-one”.
23.
Fimm hundruð dyra ok
um fjórum tögum,
svá hygg ek á Valhöllu
vera;
átta hundruð einherja
ganga senn ór einum durum, þá er þeir fara við vitni at vega.
23.
I think there are five-hundred
and forty doors in Valhalla.
Eight hundred einherjar
shall sally forth
from a single door when
they fight the wolf.
Here again we see the
mysterious new word, “vitni” for wolf. Here the stanza merely
says how the einherhar will run out to fight the wolf. From
this point it seems evident that the wolf was seen as a fierce
opponent in battle.
39.
Sköll heitir úlfr, er
fylgir inu skírleita goði
til varna viðar,
en annarr Hati, hann
er Hróðvitnis sonr,
sá skal fyr heiða brúði
himins.
39.
The wolf is called Skoll
who follows the shining God to the wood of warning.
But Hati is the other,
and he is the son of Hrothvitni, and he shall follow the bright
bride of heaven.
Here, is where we find
the famous lines depicting the moon god and sun goddess being
chased by Sköll and Hati. We find largely that it is only mentioned
that Hati is the son of Hróðvitnis, (which means “famous-wolf”,
also please note the “-vitnis”) of whom we have indication to
be another name for Fenrir by support of earlier stanzas depicting
Hati being of Fenrir’s brood and also given in this clue in
the Lokasenna;
Óðinn kvað:
10.
“Rístu þá, Viðarr, ok
lát úlfs föður
sitja sumbli at,
síðr oss Loki kveði lastastöfum
Ægis höllu í.”
Odin said:
10.
“Rise Vithar, and let
the wolf’s father
sit at the sumble,
lest Loki speak flyting
staves
to us in Aegir’s hall.”
And combined with stanzas
38 and 39;
Loki kvað:
38.
“Þegi þú, Týr, þú kunnir
aldregi
bera tilt með tveim;
handar innar hægri mun
ek hinnar geta,
er þér sleit Fenrir frá.”
Týr kvað:
39.
“Handar em ek vanr, en
þú hróðrsvitnis;
böl er beggja þrá;
úlfgi hefir ok vel, er
í böndum skal
bíða ragnarökrs.”
Loki said:
38.
“Silence Tyr! You never
could bring
justice between two men.
I also know that Fenrir
chewed off your right
hand.”
Tyr said:
39.
“I may be missing a hand,
but you lost Hrothvitnir,
who is an evil pain to
us both,
that wolf who bides Ragnarok
in bonds.”
Here we see quite clearly
that again Loki is said to be, “ok lát úlfs föður” or “the wolf’s
father”. This is followed by Týr and Loki’s argument which brings
Fenrir’s name as chewing off the hand of Týr, to which Týr responds
as, “but you lost Hróðrsvitnis.” This defines Fenrir’s other
name being Hróðrsvitnis, or at least being referenced as the
“famous wolf”. This, in turn, makes a convincing argument for
the lineage of Hati. And let us remember that it is of the brood
of Fenrir “in the shape of a troll” which tries to take the
sun.
But within Lokasenna
we see still more references to wolves and the wolf motif;
Freyr kvað:
41.
“Úlfr sé ek liggja árósi
fyrir,
unz rjúfask regin;
því mundu næst, nema
þú nú þegir,
bundinn, bölvasmiðr!”
Frey said:
41.
“I see a wolf lying before
the mouth of a river until the ruin of the Regin.
Unless you shut up,
you will next be bound,
you forger of bale.”
Freyr gives a warning
using the imagery of the patient, yet dangerous wolf to describe
Loki. But then we have Skaði’s threat to bind Loki with the
guts of his son, to which more verbal abuse is entailed until
Þórr enters the room to put Loki down. But even then, the power,
strength, and fear of the wolf is symbolized within Loki’s words;
Loki kvað:
58.
“Jarðar burr er hér nú
inn kominn;
hví þrasir þú svá, Þórr?
en þá þorir þú ekki er
þú skalt við úlfinn vega,
ok svelgr hann allan
Sigföður.”
Loki said:
58.
“Son of Jorth, who has
just now arrived!
Why are you so feisty
Thor?
You won’t be so feisty
when you fight the wolf, Thor,
and he swallows Victory-Father
whole.”
Here we have Loki insinuating
that even the mighty Þórr fears the wolf who will then swallow
Victory-Father whole. But an interesting thing to note, is that
in the prose dictating after the events of the gods capturing
Loki and his ensuing punishment;
En eftir þetta falst
Loki í Fránangrsforsi í lax líki. Þar
tóku æsir hann. Hann
var bundinn með þörmum sonar
síns Vála, en Narfi sonr
hans varð at vargi.
After that, Loki concealed
himself in Frangang falls in
the shape of a salmon.
There the Gods took him. He
was bound with the bowels
of his son Narfi, but his
son Vali turned into
a wolf.
Again we see the word,
“vargi” used to describe a wolf, but not just any type of wolf.
This was a person changed into a wolf by the gods. Vali becomes
a wolf of a mystical or magical nature. Also because of the
actions of his lineage, he is turned into an outlaw. Again and
again we have seen this association in the mythic context. This
comes to such an extent, that the connection cannot be denied
in my opinion. This can follow a logical thought-pattern into
the magical realms of animal essences and shape-changing.
One of the most obvious
and easy connections to make would be with the legends of the
berserkers. The berserks were bands of fierce warriors, dedicated
to Óðinn, who through the fettering and unfettering of the soul,
mind, and other subjective aspects of reality could change shape,
exhibit animal strength and courage(4).
That, combined with the knowledge of Óðinn’s association with
wolves makes a great combination in our study (5).
One such reference is
Snorri Sturluson’s Heimskringla (6)
within the Ynglinga saga;
“Óthin was able to cause
his enemies to be blind or deaf or fearful in battle, and he
could cause their swords to cut no better than wands. His own
men went to battle without coats of mail and acted like mad
dogs or wolves. They bit their shields and were strong as bears
or bulls. They killed people, and neither fire nor iron affected
them. This is called berserker rage.” (7)
“Óthin could shift his
appearance. When he did so his body would lie there as if he
were asleep or dead; but he himself, in an instant, in the shape
of a bird or animal, a fish or serpent, went to distant countries
on his or other men’s errands.”(8)
A more direct reference
is to the existence of a type of berserkers called, “úlfheðnar”
or “wolf-coats” are mentioned in the Hrafnsmál written
by the skaldic poet, Þorbjörn Hornklofi (9)
in regards to the personal bodyguards of King Harald Fine-Hair
of Norway. He wrote;
“Wolf-coats are they
called, those who bear swords
stained with blood in
the battle.
They redden spears when
they come to the slaughter,
Acting together like
one.”(10)
Other sagas make mention
of berserks who seemed to be aligned with wolves. In Egils
saga Skallagrímssonar we see mention of Egil’s grandfather
named Úlf (wolf) having been a berserk in his youth, but was
still susceptible to rages. It was said of him;
“…every day towards
evening he would grow so badly tempered that few people dared
even address him. He always went to sleep early in the evening
and woke up early in the morning. People claimed he was a shape-changer
and they called him Kveldúlf (Night-wolf).”
(11)
Further within Egil’s
lineage, in the saga we are told of a moment when his father,
Skallagrím goes into a battle-rage and kills one boy, then goes
after Egil during a ball game. But Egil is saved by his nurse,
who instead is killed. This hereditary temperament follows Egil
into his own childhood and well into adulthood.
Another famous saga
is The Saga of the Volsungs (12)
in which we have two points of references to shape-changing,
berserks, and outlawry. In chapter 5, Sigmund and his nine brothers
are put into a stock and left out in the forest. In the saga
it reads;
“But at midnight and
old she-wolf came to them out of the woods as they sat in the
stocks. She was both large and grim-looking. She bit one of
the brothers to death and then ate him all up. After that she
went away.”
This pattern follows
for nine nights until only Sigmund is left. A servant smears
honey all over Sigmund’s face. Then we are told;
“As usual the same she-wolf
came in the night, meaning to bite Sigmund to death as she had
his brothers. But then she caught the scent of the honey that
was rubbed on him. She licked his face all over with her tongue
and then reached her tongue into his mouth. He did not lose
his composure and bit into the wolf’s tongue. She jerked and
pulled back hard, thrusting her feet against the trunk so that
it split apart. But Sigmund held on so tightly that the wolf’s
tongue was torn out by the roots, and that was her death. And
some men say that the she-wolf was Siggeir’s mother, who had
assumed this shape through witchcraft and sorcery.”
Here we see the instance
of a female shape-changer through sorcery. Although it is not
in the realm of a berserker warrior per se, it is still within
that hazy border from berserk to werewolf. Further in the saga,
we see an element of wolves and shape-changing into wolves in
which we have a combination of the concepts of the berserk/úlfheðnar,
initiatory rites, outlawry within the concept of vargr, and
even the beginning elements of werewolfery! In chapter 8, Sigmund
and his son, by incest, Sinfjotli become outlaws within the
woodlands and forests. They come upon a house where there were
two sleeping men. The saga says;
“A spell had been cast
upon them: wolfskins hung over them in the house and only every
tenth day could they shed the skins. They were the sons of kings.
Sigmund and Sinfjotli put the skins on and could not get them
off. And the weird power was there as before: they howled like
wolves, both understanding the sounds. Now they set out in the
forest, each going his own way.”
They both killed many
men in this rampant rampage of bloodlust. And the sagas tell
us how they end up in argument and fight, whereas Sinfjotli
gets injured and eventually becomes healed. Then the saga mentions;
“Then they went to the
underground dwelling and stayed there until they were to take
off the wolfskins. They took the skins and burned them in the
fire, hoping that these objects would cause no further harm.
Under that magic spell they had performed many feats in King
Siggeir’s kingdom. When Sinfjotli was fully grown, Sigmund though
he had tested him fully.”
Looking deeply into
this element of the legend, we can clearly see a pattern of
initiation within the context of the story. In seeking revenge
for their ancestors, we see our heroes travel a road of transformation.
There are in all heroic epics, an element of rejection of the
societal norms in which the heroes partake while on their journey
to self-discovery and testing of the will before the climax
of their quest.(13)
For The Volsung Saga, concerning Sigmund
and Sinfjotli, this shape-changing experience along with their
becoming outlaws for a time, is that very element of societal
rejection. We can also see the elements of the warrior/wolf
cult in which, even in modern times have been examined.(14)
There is also archeological
evidence which points to the existence of wolf-cults in Scandinavia.
For example, one of the four dies for making helmet plates dated
from the 6th century, from the island of Öland, depicts
a dancing young warrior (15)
initiate alongside another warrior with a wolf’s
head. (See Figure A) Yet another die, from the same archeological
discovery, shows us a human being who is holding an ax and a
chain that is tied around the neck of a rather wolfish-looking
beast. (See Figure B) Some mythologists like H. R. Ellis-Davidson
(16) believe it may be reference
to the myth of the binding of Fenrir by the god, Týr. Another
perfect example, from roughly the same period, is of a metal
plate from an Alamanic grave again showing a dancing warrior
alongside a figure with a wolf’s head. (See Figure C)
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Figure
A
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Figure
B
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Figure C
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The elements of frenzied
dance within the myths of the úlfheðnar seem extensive. To further
support this theory is the historical accounts concerning the
elite fighting force of the Byzantine emperor in Constantinople
called the Væringjar, or Varangian guard.(17)
These were mercenary Scandinavian warriors until about the 11th
century whereas the ranks became increasingly made up of exiled
Anglo-Saxons. The Byzantine emperor Constantine VII refers to
the frenzied dance of his Varangian Guard, which was ceremonial
in nature and involved dressing in animal skins. This is referred
to as a "Gothic Dance" from the Book of Ceremonies
of the Emperor Constantine VII.
So far, within this
article, we have observed the elements of wolves within mythic
texts. These texts have shown us that the overriding element
is one of transformation and metamorphosis. Mythic texts again
and again refer to the changing of one being into that of the
wolf; from the divine/semi-divine taking its shape to become
strong enough to cause havoc; to the human transformation into
wolves as a means of magic, empowerment, and personal transformation
on several multitudes of levels to test the self. We have also
reviewed the berserks/úlfheðnar within literary and archeological
contexts. Similar elements which have run through all three
discussed have been transformation, the use of a hide, and an
element of dance or ecstatic movement within mythic texts and
warrior cults.
A strangely correlating
realm, which corresponds almost exactly with the elements of
úlfheðnar transformation, is the common folklore and myth of
the werewolf. Werewolf myth extends from places such as Siberia,
the plains of Eastern Russia, west towards the Caucasus and
Urals, to the Atlantic shores of France, and north into Scandinavia.
Scholars in early centuries even describe the activities of
werewolves during Yule-tide which sound familiar to the doings
of berserks and legends of the Wild Hunt.(18)
Could the myths and legends of the werewolf be a branch off
of the tree of the cults of the berserks and úlfheðnar?
Like the berserks of
legend, werewolves in some ancient tales (before the invention
of Hollywood) were unharmed by weapons of any sort, unless it
was an instant death blow. Only a magical incantation, or harm
while in human form, could kill a werewolf. Other tales spoke
said how injuries could be given to the beast, but would not
affect them until their transformation back to human form.
(19) This seems strikingly
similar to the idea of the berserk collapsing from exhaustion
or injury once their rage and bloodlust was over.
Werewolves, like in
ancient warrior initiatory rites and the legends of the berserks
and úlfheðnar, needed generally three things to become a wolf-beast.
They are desire, a wolf-skin or wolf-belt, and a form or means
of attaining an ecstatic state. While we have already spoken
of some of the means of gaining ecstatic states by warrior cults
including dancing and movement, there have been theories of
the use of intoxication to attain those states although the
evidence is scarce. In werewolf legend and myth, the use of
salves and toxins are extensive.(20)
Two of the most infamous
and documented cases of the trials, convictions, and execution
for werewolfery, or criminal lycanthropy, were those of Peter
Stump and Jean Grenier. In the case of Peter Stump, he was given
an animal girdle by a creature he referred to as a demon. In
the court sessions in the trial of Jean Grenier, he told the
assembly that the “Lord of the Forest” gave him a magic wolf-skin
and a special salve.(21)
In a majority of recorded
formulas, the listings of herbs/substances utilized within the
ritual preparation of salves included any four or five of the
following: Hemlock (2 or 3 oz.), Henbane (1 to 1 ½ oz.), Saffron
(3 oz.), Poppy seeds (any amount), Aloe (3 drachms), Opium (½
oz.), Asafoetida (2 oz.), Solanum (2 to 3 drachms), Parsley
(any amount), and Aconite/Wolf’s Bane (varied). Of course, many
of these substances are comprised of modernly known hallucinogens,
nervous system stimulants, and narcotics known to numb or eradicate
pain receptor transmissions.
An example of a Slavic
werewolf ceremony involved the drawing of a circle on level
ground about nine feet in radius; in the center is another circle
of three feet in radius of which a fire made from black poplar,
pine or larch was ignited. In an iron pot of boiling water was
stirred in four or five of the previously states ingredients.
A kneeling position was taken inside the larger circle and a
preliminary prayer of the initiate’s own invention was recited.
Then the would-be werewolf would recite (roughly translated
& adapted):
“Spirits from the deep
who never sleep, be kind to me. Spirits from the grave without
a soul to save, be kind to me. Spirits of the trees that grow
upon the leas, be kind to me. Spirits of the air, foul and dark,
not fair; be kind to me. Water spirits hateful, to ships and
bathers fateful, be kind to me. Spirits of the earthbound dead
that glide with noiseless tread be kind to me. Spirits of heat
and fire, destructive in your ire, be kind to me. Spirits of
the cold and ice, patrons of crime and vice- Oh spirits, be
kind to me! Wolves, vampires, satyrs, and ghosts! Elect of all
dark, wild hosts! I pray you send hither, the great grey shape
that makes men shiver!”
Having taken off all
his clothing and footwear the initiate smears his body with
a salve made from the fat of a slaughtered animal mixed with
camphor, aniseed, and opium. Afterwards, the wolf-belt or pelt
is fastened on his body and he awaits inside the larger circle
for the arrival of the one who will grant him his power.(22)
Other methods of transformation
aren’t nearly as ritualistic. In Sweden and Norway, legends
say that one only needs to drink water from the footprint of
a wolf or drink from a lycanthropous stream at midnight during
a full moon. Other legends deem that merely wearing the skin
of a wolf is enough to transform either physically or just in
a mental state.
The wolf, in myth and
legend, has had an interesting role to play in the psyche of
the Germanic peoples and their neighbors. From literal mythic
creatures both evil and good, to aspects of a spiritual archetype,
the wolf remains in the hearts of men. Whether they inhabit
those dark corners of the netherworlds, or the open wilds as
an example of freedom triumphant, the wolf remains an enigmatic
soul that man will forever both fear and admire. Even today,
in areas of magic and spiritual quests, some modern day experimenters
still seek connections with this mystic, mythic, and mysterious
animal spirit.23 Is this, in all of its forms, an
attempt to find a connection with nature or to find the feral
beast within ourselves? Perhaps it is a little of both.
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